Scrutinizing architectural elements of mosques

Editor’s note: On July 9 this year, hundreds of millions of Muslims are celebrating the first day of the holy month of Ramadan. For this occasion, Dr. Khalid Azab, an Egyptian writer who works as a media director at Alexandria Bibliotheca, Egypt tells about the architectural elements of mosques.

Teachings of the Prophet (pbuh) and the principles laid down in the Holy Quran have constituted what may be called “the Architecture of Mosques from the Perspective of Fiqh (Jurisprudence)”, which is a key element of Islamic architecture based on providing an ample space for Muslims to pray in piety and humility to God.

God has made man’s life easy, and prayer is possible anywhere pure. Almighty Allah has ordered Muslims to build mosques to house them in one place for worship which protects them from adverse weather conditions. The functional aspect of the design of mosques is limited to providing such an ample space for congregational prayers five times a day and Friday prayer in grand mosques. It is the house that embodies all corners of Muslim society, as its four walls specify the inner area where purity must be maintained.

Definition of the word “mosque”

Arabic linguists define masjid (mosque) as a place of worship for congregational prayers.

The architectural elements of mosques

Qibla wall: The direction of the Sacred House as specified by God in the Holy Quran for Muslims to turn to in prayer: “Many a time We have seen you (Prophet) turn your face towards Heaven, so are turning you towards a qibla (prayer direction). Turn your face towards the Sacred House: wherever you (believers) may be, turn your face to it.” (Al-Baqara [The Cow] 144.)

Accordingly, turning to the qibla is a condition for the validity of prayer. The qibla has a direct impact on Islamic architecture and priority over all other related considerations and factors, such as the weather and geographic position. It also affects the internal shape of the qibla wall. The qibla wall, which includes a mihrab where the imam leads prayers, is the basis for the planning of mosques, even if this causes architectural problems in attempting to align the qibla wall with the direction of the parallel road. Ayyubi architects found ideal solutions to this problem.

Early Muslims were deeply preoccupied with the qibla. In the beginning they consulted leading companions, as in the case of Amr ibn Al-As Moque when 8-80 of them were consulted.

Setting the prayer direction was done in one of the following ways:

1-using a compass.
2-copying the pattern of a mihrab in a largely populated Muslim country as approved by its imam.
3-using astronomical instruments.

Tables were drawn up to set the qibla and its deviation.

The mihrab (payer niche)

Linguists agree that this word is Arabic in origin meaning a high or favourite room.

It has four meanings in the Holy Quran:

• The front of a building.
• The room at the entrance of Christians’ and Jews’ temples.
• A royal palace.
• A place designated for kings only: “Whenever Zachariah went in to see her in her sanatuary (mihrab), he found her supplied with provisions.” “The angels called out to him, while he stood praying in the sanctuary (mihrab).” “He went out of the sanctuary (mihrab) to his people.” “They made him whatever he wanted – palaces, statues, basins as long as water troughs.” Mihrab in these ayas means a palace, temple or house.

From the architectural point of view a mihrab is a recess in the prayer house wall pointing towards the Sacred House in Mecca. The recess is semi-cylindrical in form, surmounted by a half of a dome and flanked by a column on either side with a base and a capital each. The projection of the mihrab from the wall allows a row of prayers with the imam in a central place.

Several modern archaeological studies have revealed that the mihrab’s recess form first appeared upon the building of the Prophet’s Mosque in Medina, and it continued with the renovations carried out during the age of Caliphs Umar and Uthman and also during the Umayyad era, when the elevation of the Mosque required building a higher arch.

Some religious scholars and historians mistakenly believed that the recess form of the mihrab was copied from earlier religions and only appeared during he Umayyad age.

The qibla wall and mihrab are the main features of the architecture of mosques as seen in the following signs:

• Placing the mihrab often in central, prominent place easily seen clearly from all sides.
• Determination to build it even if that requires a projection on the wall in case it is not thick enough.
• Decorating it more elaborately than other parts of the mosque despite when is said that this distracts prayers. Decorations included marble cladding.

To highlight the importance of the mihrab, not only was the qibla portico the biggest in the mosque but a passage was also made, e.g. in Al-Azhar Mosque, pointing to its direction and lighting the place in front of it, such as in Al-Azhar, Al-Zahir Baybars and Almardani mosques in Cairo.

In addition to natural lighting, artificial lighting was also put in in the form of lamps and candlesticks in the Mameluke era, e.g. in Ibn Tulun Mosque (AH696/AD1296). The candlesticks were supported by metal or wooden chairs.

The prayer house: known as the portico. A mosque traditionally consists of a courtyard surrounded by four porticoes, the largest of which is the qibla portico. The prayer house stared with the Prophet’s Mosque in Medina in its simple form and developed over the ages to include the qibla wall, the mihrab and the minbar, often with domes and flat ceilings above.

The prayer house is usually supported by columns surmounted by arches with ceilings above. All these have constituted a major component of Islamic architecture to which Muslim architects have made valuable additions in terms of column forms, arch types and dome building. Careful attention was given to the qibla portico to the extent that its area exceeded that of side and opposite porticoes, such as in Alqarawiyin and Andulusians Mosques (AH245/AD859) in Fez and Almahdiya Mosque in Tunis (AH304/Ah916) and Alkatiba Mosque in Marrakesh (AH596/AD1158).

Some mosques consist of two sections only – a covered one, the qibla portico, and an open one, the courtyard, such as in these mosques: Alqayrawan (AH50/AD670), Cordova (AH170/AD786), Alzaytouna in Tunis (AH250/AD864) and Alaa Eddin in Konya. In a third type of mosques, such as Al-Aqsa Mosque (AH87/AD706) and Abu Qatata Mosque in Tunis (AH253/AD838), the qibla portico constitutes the entire interior space.

The Ottomans devised a fourth type with a circular wide interior space and few columns and arches, unlike the above-mentioned grand and small mosques, thus allowing prayers to stand in serried rows, e.g. Alsulaimaniya Mosque in Istanbul (AH957/AD1550) and Alsalimiya Mosque (AH959/AD1953).

It should be stressed here that the functional aspect of mosques is not limited to providing an ample space for Muslims to pray in serried rows and protect them from rain, heat and cold, but the theoretical framework of Islamic architecture requires that the mosque take a longitudinal shape, perpendicular to the qibla in order to lengthen the rows and provide space for as many prayers in the front rows as possible as this earns God’s reward. As narrated by Abu Hurairah, the Prophet (pbuh) said: “If people knew (the reward for) pronouncing the adhan and for standing in the first row (in congregational paryers) and found no other way except by drawing lots they would draw lots.” (Sahih Al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim). “If you knew the reward for standing in the front row you would draw lots.” (Sahih Muslim).

There must be an ample space for prostration with prayers standing shoulder to shoulder in serried rows, preferably putting signs or lines for the sake of convenience. The mosque’s area, therefore, is measured on the basis of 50 cm for standing and 120 m for prostration per prayer. Accordingly, Ibn Hawqal said about the area of the grand mosque in Palermo, Sicily: “I guessed that out of a population of over 7,000 men, there will be no more than 36 rows of 200 men each.” This indicates that the number of prayers was calculated on the basis of the mosque’s area and the city’s need upon building. These remarks help provide a lot of useful information in the areas of architectural, urban, social studies, etc.

The minbar

Arabic linguists define a minbar as a high place, and the ladder or stair which the preacher climbs. Archaeological sources differ on the early beginnings of the minbar. Some say it was necessary for the Prophet (pbuh) on health grounds, others report it was added in view of the increasing number of prayers at congregational prayers, and that after climbing the minbar he sat and the muezzin pronounced the adhan (call to prayer). He preached two sermons and sat down twice, preaching the Friday sermon leaning on a stick while prayers were looking at him and listening carefully. He said: “You people, I have done this so that you may take me as your imam and learn prayer the way I do.”

Before the minbar was introduced into the Prophet’s Mosque, he used to lean against a palm trunk while preaching, and as he said he found difficulty in standing up, some companions suggested that a minbar be made and set up in the Mosque, and he agreed after consulting with some Muslims.

Concerning the number of steps of the Prophet’s Mosque minbar some sources say they were two in addition to a seat. The Prophet (pbuh) used to sit on the seat and put his feet on the second step. When Abu Bakr became caliph he used to sit on the second step and put his feet on the bottom one. During the first six years of his caliphate, Umar used to sit on the bottom step and put his feet on the floor, and then did as the Prophet had done. Muawiyah added six more steps, and caliphs used to sit on the seventh. It is said that the one who added the six steps was Marwan ibn Alhakam during the age of Muawiyah.

Religious scholars have specified the minbar’s location and site: 1-2 cubits to the left of the qibla.

The courtyard

The courtyard is the open space of the mosque and is connected to its porticoes and external walls. The mosques in the countries which converted to Islam took the example of the architecture of the Prophet’s Mosque where there was an open space with a portico on each of the southern and northern sides.

Some mosques have ablution facilities like fountains or basins as well trees which provide shade for prayers beyond the mosque’s capacity. In large mosques, such as the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, a dome was built in AH172/AD788 by Alfadl bin Salih bin Ali Alabbasi, the then Amir of Damascus, for keeping waqf documents, state funds, manuscripta, etc.

Religious scholars disagree on whether the courtyard forms an integral part of the mosque proper; however the majority agree that the open space surrounded by the mosque’s walls is part of the mosque, but the external area around the mosque and adjacent to its walls is not.

Sharia ordains that the courtyard be maintained clean because it may be used for prayer in case prayers are beyond the capacity of the porticoes. At times trees were planted in courtyards and mosques named after the planted trees, e.g. Jasmine Mosque in Tiberia, Palestine, and all grand mosque courtyards in Andalusia are planted with orange trees. However, some religious scholars prohibit planting trees in courtyards if they affect the basic function of the mosque-prayer.

In this connection it is noted that the courtyard passed through several stages in terms of function. It was used for congregational prayers, and was otherwise regarded as a passage or corridor leading to porticoes. It was sometimes used for entertainment or commerce, paying no attention to its cleanliness. That led religious scholars to limit its usage to prayer, in addition to providing ventilation and lighting to porticoes.

The Ottomans surrounded mosques with fenced gardens to protect and make them look beautiful. It is worth noting that our old mosques were surrounded with wide spaces of land.

The midaa (ablution facilities)

A midaa is a place for “ablution”, the Arabic word for which means beauty and joy. Almighty Allah says: “You who believe, when you are about to pray, wash your faces and your hands and arms up to the elbows, wipe your heads, wash your feet up to the ankles.” (Al Maida (The Feast/6). As narrated by Qatada, the Prophet (pbuh) said: “Allah will not accept prayer without purity.”, and as narrated by Abu Hurairah, he said: “Prayer shall not be valid without ablution, nor shall ablution be valid unless done in the name of Allah.”

It was therefore necessary to provide ablution facilities in preparation for prayer, particularly when the mosque lies on a busy road. As mosques are meant for congregational payers and for the sake of the convenience of prayers, special wells or basins for ablution are dug in mosque courtyards, e.g. Alqarawiyin and many mosques in Morocco.

The midaa is a rectangular space surrounded by an open courtyard with a fountain for ablution in the middle and a number of toilets around, in addition to a small bathroom. As these facilities can affect the mosque’ purity and cleanliness, religious scholars allowed building them near mosque doors or on their roofs unless their water damages their ceilings.

Accordingly, the midaa in some historical mosques was separate from the mosque building or at the bottom of the courtyard, e.g, Sultan Hassan Mosque and Mahmoudiya School in Cairo. It is sometimes connected to the mosque but at a lower level and is reached down a stair or from the street. That type was very common in Mameluke mosques in Cairo. In Sanaa’s mosques it is a single-storey building, some of whose walls, particularly at the entrance, are decorated and its interior walls and drain ducts covered with pebbles. Noticeably, ablution was reused in watering Sanaa mosques’ orchards and farms through special ducts.

Religious scholars differ on whether all prayers may perform ablution from one basin or fountain lest it should affect its purity. The Shafei school’s followers allow that, but most scholars prefer to have water pipes stretching from the basin to taps, e.g. Muhammd Ali Mosque in Cairo. Some old mosques have separate fountains for Shafei and Hanani schools’ followers.

Minarets

The minaret, along with the dome, is the mark of the mosque, the Muslims’ place of worship. The adhan is the call to prayer at specific times. As Alqortubi said: “Though brief in terms of words, the adhan contains matters of belief. It begins with the greatness of Allah, then witnesses that there is no God but Allah and that Muhammad (pbuh) is His Messenger, next calling to prayer and to salvation and finally reiterates the greatness and oneness of Allah.”

The adhan is meant to notify people of prayer times, but Muslims gathered in the Prophet’s Mosque and were in no need of the adhan. However, with the spread of Islam in Medina and among the tribes around it and the increasing number of Muslims, the adhan became necessary and the Prophet (pbuh) decided to notify them of prayer times and call them to prayer. He consulted with his companions about how to do that. Some suggestions were made: hoisting a flag at prayer times, but he did not like it; beating a tambourine, but he did not like it, either, because it was used by Christians for calling to prayer;  burning a fire, but still he did not like it.

Meanwhile, companion Abdullah bin Zaid Alkhazraji Alansary dreamed of a man wearing two green garments and carrying a bell. Abdullah asked him if he would sell him the bell, and the man asked what for. Abdullah answered to use it to call to payer, but the man said: “I tell you something better. You say: Allahu-Akbar (Allah is great), Allahu-Akbar, Allahu-Akbar, Allahu-Akbar; Ashahdu an la ilaha illalah (I bear witness that there is no God but Allah), Ashhadu an la ilaha illallah; Ashhadu anna Muhammadan Rasul-Ullah (I bear witness that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah), Ashhadu anna Muhammadan Rasul-Ullah; Haiya alas-Salah (Come to prayer); Haiya alas-Salah; Haiya alal-Falah, (Come to salvation), Haiya alal-Falah; Allahu-Akbar, Allahu-Akbar; La ilaha illalah.’ When the Prophet (pbush) heard this he said: “It is a true vision inshaallah (God willing). Tell it to Bilal to pronounce the adhan with it; his voice is sweater than yours.” It is said that Umar ibn Alkhatab said: “How about sending a man to call to prayer?, whereupon the Prophet (pbuh) said: “Rise, Bilal, and call to prayer”.

The adhan should be audibly pronounced so as to be widely heard. During the Prophet’s age the minaret started as a very simple structure, as the higher the place where the call to payer is made, the more widely it is heard. A tall house of a woman from Alnajjar family was the start, but the Prophet’s Mosque was rebuilt during his age as a structure was built on the roof, as reported by In Saad in his Tabaqat. This height may be conceived as a brick structure in a corner in the Mosque climbed on steps put on a wall and cannot be put on the roof which is made of beams and palm trunks. The Prophet’s Mosque wall was two different bricks thick, the equivalent of one and a half bricks, approx. 80 cm, which allows the building of a simple circular structure for the muezzin to stand on.

The minaret developed and had its distinctive architectural features during the Prophet’s age and Bilal used to climb steps up to a square-based column to call to prayer. Minarets did not witness any significant development during the ages off Caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar, but Cliph Uthman (in AH 29) expanded the Prophet’s Mosque considerably and made it 160 cubits long, 150 cubits wide, bringing stone from Nakhl clan and reinforcing its columns with lead, its six doors unchanged. He also lit the square minarets.

According to historical sources, Abu Bakr built a minaret on Ajyad mountain, near the Sacred House in Mecca on which muezzins stood in Ramadan. Additionally, in the early stages of Islam, “the adhan was sometimes pronounced on city walls, particularly in Damascus.

Let’s consider the stone minarets of the grand mosque in Basra built by Ziad, son of his father, in AH 45. The excavations conducted by the Iraqi Department of Antiquities and Heritage, led by Dr Abdul Aziz Hameed, in 1960 unearthed two stone minarets dating back to Ziad’s age. Of the oldest and most famous minarets is that of Alqarawiyin Mosque built by Oqba bin Nafei in Ah50, followed by that of Amr ibn Al As Mosque built by Maslama bin Mikhlid Alansary in AH53. In his book Akhbar Masjid Ahl Alraya, Alkindi said: “When the mosque was beyond the capacity of prayers, the then amir Maslama wrote to this effect to Muawiyah who ordered the expansion of the mosque.

It was expanded eastwards beyond Amr’s house … Building a minaret for the mosque in Alfustat was also ordered, and the muezzins were ordered to call to prayer simultaneously and ordered them to call to the Fajr (dawn) prayer after midnight after which each muezzin to call to prayer in Alfustat at the same time. “Abu Luhaya said:”Their adhan made a big boom. Muawiyah was said to have ordered Maslama to build minarets for the mosque … and he built four of them in the four corners. The stairs leading to the minaret were outside the mosque until Khalid bin Saeed moved them inside.

There is a variety of minaret shapes and designs around the world, from China to Andalusia, the most famous of which is that of Seville Mosque, which was converted into a cathedral later, and its minaret top was replaced with a Renaissance one. Other well-known minarets include the unique spiral one of Samarraa Mosque and that of Abu Dalaf Mosque. Alriqqa Mosque minaret, with the remaining part of its cylindrical body up to the muezzin’s balcony, has been copied in many minarets in that aprt of the world stretching from Iraq to East Asia, an impressive example off which is Qutb Manar minaret. These minarets are characterized by a small, thin, tall body on a base which is too short compared with its height. The higher the body goes, the thinner it gets until it reaches the muezzin’s balcony supported by rows of chevron mouldings, often going further higher supported by another row of chevron mouldings, and even a third thin body covered by a small onion-like dome.